Augustus,+Art+and+Architecture+and+Propaganda

The Prima Porta : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BLZIGceWh6E  **Art and Architecture of the Age of Augustus** source:http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/arth209/augustus.html Second Seminar, November 16. Our second seminar will be devoted to an examination of the art and architecture from the time of Augustus, the first emperor of Rome. As we will see, the political transformation of Rome from the Republic to the Early Empire was paralleled by a shift in the art of the two periods. The art of the period of Augustus is frequently called Augustan Classicism. As we saw in our discussion of Hellenistic Art, the art of Augustus is intentionally retrospective and models itself on past models. This choice of style was intentional to reinforce the political message of Augustus as a restorer of Rome. Of particular importance will be the strong influences of Greek High Classical Art, especially that of the Parthenon and fifth century Athens, on the art of Augustus. In preparation for the assignment read Ramage & Ramage, pp. 100-131. You should also consult the following webpages: [|Rome's Imperial Fora]

[|Roman Power and Roman Imperial Scupture] Among the major monuments we will be considering will be the portraits of Augustus. Special emphasis will be given to the so-called //Augustus of Primaporta// (for a [|360 degree view] of the work)

In the Survey course, I regularly compare this statue to the Doryphoros by Polykleitos and the Arringatore or Aulus Metellus:  (for a [|360 degree] view of the work) ||
 * [[image:http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/Roman/republican/arringatorem.jpg width="150" height="228" link="@http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/Roman/republican/arringatore.jpg"]] || [[image:http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/greek_archaic_classical/sculpture/doryphorosm.jpg width="100" height="234" link="@http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/greek_archaic_classical/sculpture/doryphoros.jpg"]][[image:http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/greek_archaic_classical/sculpture/doryphoros_headM.jpg width="110" height="141" link="@http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/greek_archaic_classical/sculpture/doryphoros_head.jpg"]]



The central group on the cuirass shows the return by the Parthians of the standards that had been lost in the humiliating defeat of Crassus in 53 B.C. Augustus's victory in 20 B.C. was a diplomatic one as opposed to a military one The symbolism of the elaborate cuirass, or breast-plate, that Augustus wears has been compared to the symbolism found in the following ode of Horace: [|Horace], Carmen saeculare:

 //In 17 B.C., Augustus reinstituted the so-called Secular Games, a festival celebrating the preservation of the State and supposed to be held once every 110 years. On the third and last day of the games an ode was sung in Apollo's temple by a choir of boys and girls, and it was Horace who was commissioned to write it. Compare this ode to the statue of Augustus, the Augustus of Primaporta.//  O honoured and for ever to be honoured  Twin glories of the firmament, accord us  All we beseech today- <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Day of devotion, when the Sybil's verses <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Enjoin the chaste, the chosen youths and maidens <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> To chant their hymns of worship to the patron <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Gods of our seven hills.**2** <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Kind sun,**3** bright charioteer, bringer and hider <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Of light, newborn each morning yet each morning <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Unaltered, may thou never view a city <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Greater on earth than Rome. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Moon, gentle midwife, punctual in thy office, <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Lucina, Ilithyia, Genitalis- <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Be called whichever title is most pleasing- <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Care for our mother's health. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Goddess, make strong our youth and bless the Senate's <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Decrees rewarding parenthood and marriage, <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> That from the new laws Rome may heap a lavish <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Harvest of boys and girls.**4** <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> So that the destined cycle of eleven <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Decades **5** may bring again great throngs to witness <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> The games and singing: three bright days and three long <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Nights of the people's joy. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> And you, O Fates, who have proved truthful prophets, <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Your promise stands- and may time's sacred landmarks <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Guard it immovably: to our accomplished <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Destiny add fresh strength. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> May Mother Earth,**6** fruitful in crops and cattle, <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Crown Ceres' forehead with a wreath of wheat-ears, <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> And dews and rains and breezes, God's good agents, <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Nourish whatever grows. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Sun-god, put by thy bow and deign to listen <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Mildly and gently to the boys' entreaties. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Moon, crescent sovereign of the constellations, <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Answer the virgins' prayers. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Rome is your handiwork; in your safe-keeping <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> The Trojan band reached an Etruscan haven, <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> That remnant which, at your command, abandoned <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> City and hearth to make <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> The auspicious voyage, those for whom pure-hearted <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Aeneas,**7** the last pillar of royal manhood <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Left standing in burnt Troy, paved paths to greater <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Fame than they left behind. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Gods, by these tokens make our young quick pupils <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Of virtue, give the aged peace and quiet, <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Rain on the race of Romulus wealth, offspring, <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Honours of every kind; <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> And when, tonight, with blood of milk-white oxen <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> The glorious son of Venus and Anchises**8** <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Invokes you, grant his prayers. Long may Augustus <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Conquer but spare the foe. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Now Parthia fears the fist of Rome,**9** the fasces**10** <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Potent on land and sea; now the once haughty <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Ambassadors from the Caspian and the Indus <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Sue for a soft reply. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Now Faith and Peace and Honour and old-fashioned <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Conscience and unremembered Virtue venture <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> To walk again, and with them blessed Plenty, <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Pouring her brimming horn.**11** <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Apollo, augur, bright-bowed archer, well-loved <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Music-master of the nine Muses, healer <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Whose skill in medicine can ease the body's <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Ills and infirmities. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> By thy affection for the Palatine altars <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Prolong, we pray, the Roman State and Latium's <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Prosperity into future cycles, nobler <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Eras, for evermore. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Diana, keeper of the sacred hilltops <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Of Aventine and Algidus, be gracious <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> To the prayers of the Fifteen Guardians, to the children <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Bend an attentive ear. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> That Jove and all the gods approve these wishes <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> We, the trained chorus, singers of the praises <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Of Phoebus and Diana, carry homewards <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Happy, unshaken hope. || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**1** On the breastplate or cuirass of the Augustus of Primaporta, Diana and Apollo are shown flanking the return of the Parthian standard. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Diana, queen of forests, and Apollo,**1**
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**2** Rome is the city of the [|seven hills] ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**3** Again see the breastplate of the Augustus of Primaporta with the sun-god Sol appearing at the top riding his four horse chariot. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**4** [[image:http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/Roman/augustus/ara_pacis/imp_proc_det0.jpg width="104" height="70" align="left" link="@http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/Roman/augustus/ara_pacis/imp_proc_det.jpg"]]Expansion of the Roman population was a central issue in Augustus' political agenda. Note the inclusion of children in the Imperial Procession on the Ara Pacis. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**5** The [|Secular Games] were to mark the end of a //saeculum// and the beginning of the next. A //saeculum// was calculated as a period of 110 or 100 years. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**6** [[image:http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/Roman/augustus/ara_pacis/tellus0.jpg width="103" height="70" align="left" link="@http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/Roman/augustus/ara_pacis/tellus.jpg"]]The figure of Mother Earth or Tellus appears at the bottom of the cuirass of the Augustus of Primaporta and is also one of the panels on the Ara Pacis. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**7** Horace like Virgil in the //Aeneid// sees the Trojan prince Aeneas as the direct ancestor of Augustus. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**8** [[image:http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/Roman/augustus/augustus_prima_aeneas0.jpg width="53" height="80" align="left" link="@http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/Roman/augustus/augustus_prima_aeneas.jpg"]]Aeneas was understood as the son of the goddess Venus and the mortal Anchises. The detail of the cupid riding on the back of the dolphin on the Augustus of Primaporta is understood as a reference to this, and thus establishes the divine lineage of Augustus. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**9** [[image:http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/Roman/augustus/augustus_prima_det0.jpg width="44" height="70" align="left" link="@http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/Roman/augustus/augustus_prima_det.jpg"]]The next major victory for Augustus after the battle of Actium was the surrender of the Parthians. In 53 BCE, Crassus had suffered a humiliating defeat to the Parthians with the Roman standards being captured. In 20 BCE Augustus was able to secure the surrender of the Parthians and the return of the lost standards. This peaceful use of the Roman military was understood to mark the era of //Pax Romana// or //Pax Augusta.// This return of the standards is the central detail on the cuirass of the Augustus of Primaporta. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**10** //[|Fasces]// are a bunch of 12 wooden sticks with an axe in the center. This is a traditional symbol of Roman power and jurisdiction. //Fasces// were carried by attendants or Lictors who protected Roman magistrates. This is one of the many Roman symbols that has been incorporated into our American symbolism. //Fasces// flank the Speaker's chair in the Hours of Representatives. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**11** Reference to the cornucopia or the horn of plenty, a regular symbol in Roman art. The Tellus figure on the cuirass of the Augustus of Primaporta holds a cornucopia. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">For a recent study of the Horace's text see the book by Michael Lipka, entitled: //Roman Gods: a conceptual approach.// It is available as an [|electronic book through the library's webpage.] See especially Chapter 3, pp. 147 ff. ||

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Virgil between 29 BCE and his death in 19 BCE was working on the //Aeneid// probably under the patronage of Augustus. In this national epic clearly based on the tradition of Homer's epics, Virgil adapts the story of Aeneas to the ideology of Augustus. See [|excerpt]. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Consider also the following gallery of portraits of Augustus: Coin of Octavian, c. 38 BCE. Obverse: Octavian, Caesar Divi Filius; Reverse: Divus Iulius ||  || Augustus as //Pontifex Maximus// (he became //Pontifex Maximus// in 12 BCE) || Detail of Augustus as //Pontifex Maximus.// (Note how the head is done as a separate piece from the body. The body is done in Luna marble, while the head is done in the costlier Greek marble.) || Augustus wearing Civic Crown (Louvre). The [|Civic Crown] was Rome's second highest honor. It was awarded to someone who has saved the lives of fellow citizens from an enemy. ||  Augustus wearing Civic Crown. || Statue of Augustus from Egypt. ||  Augustus as Magistrate. Louvre. ||  Augustus as God. || //Gemma Augustea//, early first century AD. Augustus is shown seated in the guise of Jupiter. To his left sits Roma, probably with the likeness of his wife Livia. Between Roma and Augustus appears the zodiacal symbol for Capricorn, Augustus' birth sign. Augustus is being crowned with the civic crown (//corona civica//) by the personification for the civilized world, Oikoumene. Tellus or Italia, holding a cornucopia, is shown seated in the foreground with two babies. The male figure between Tellus and Oikoumene has been identified as either Neptune or Oceanus. On the left, Tiberius, Augustus' successor, descends from a chariot with a Nike figure. While not certain, this is possibly a reference to the victories of Tiberius in Germany. The youthful figure wearing a cuirass is usually identified as Germanicus, the emperor's nephew. The upper register, therefore, states Augustus' rule over the earth and civilized world, and his establishment of a dynasty. The lower registers show soldiers raising a battlefield trophy with captive barbarians at their feet. ||
 * [[image:http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/Roman/augustus/coin_divi_filiusm.jpg width="325" height="165" link="@http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/Roman/augustus/coin_divi_filius.jpg"]]
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<span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">Another major monument we will be considering will be the //Ara Pacis,// done between 13-9 B.C.
 * [[image:http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/Roman/augustus/ara_pacis/ara_pacis2m.jpg width="326" height="250" link="@http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/Roman/augustus/ara_pacis/ara_pacis2.jpg"]] || [[image:http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/Roman/augustus/ara_pacis/ara_pacis_backm.jpg width="375" height="250" link="@http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/Roman/augustus/ara_pacis/ara_pacis_back.jpg"]] ||

<span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;">for additional images of the [|Ara Pacis]

<span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;">

<span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;">The Ara Pacis was constructed in the Campus Martius or the Field of Mars outside of the city of Rome. The Campus Martius represents the boundary between the military and civic authority in Rome. The altar was instituted on July 4, 13 B.C. and dedicated on January 30, 9 B.C (the birthday of Livia, the wife of Augustus). Augustus had returned from a three-year campaign in Spain and Gaul on July 3, 13 B.C. Augustus refused to have a triumph to mark his return and he also refused the Senate's offer to build an altar in the Senate chamber. These decisions were undoubtedly to avoid accusations of over-reaching. The altar was positioned to be a part of a gigantic sundial, whose gnomon was a hundred foot obelisk, which commemorated the conquest of Egypt and was dedicated between June 10 B.C. and June 9 B.C. The obelisk cast its shadow on an elaborate series of bronze lines that were set into the stone pavement. It has been argued that the obelisk's shadow was aligned to point directly to the center of the altar of the Ara Pacis on the fall equinox which was the birthday of Augustus. This alignment with the heavens was undoubtedly intended as part of the claim of universal domination of Augustus. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">For a more complete discussion, see the section dedicated to the [|Ara Pacis] that I have included on the web page discussing [|Roman Imperial sculpture]. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> For the connection between Augustus and Aeneas see the [|excerpt from Vergil's //Aeneid//]//.// || <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> ||
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;">[[image:http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/Roman/augustus/ara_pacis/aeneasm.jpg width="190" height="143" link="@http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/Roman/augustus/ara_pacis/aeneas.jpg"]]
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;">[[image:http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/Roman/augustus/ara_pacis/imperial_processionm.jpg width="220" height="141" link="@http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/Roman/augustus/ara_pacis/imperial_procession.jpg"]] || <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;">[[image:http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/Roman/augustus/ara_pacis/imp_proc_detm.jpg width="321" height="216" link="@http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/Roman/augustus/ara_pacis/imp_proc_det.jpg"]] ||
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<span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> Reconstruction of the Forum of Augustus with the Temple of Mars Ultor, late 1st century B.C. || <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> Remains of the Temple of Mars Ultor || <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> This relief from Algiers is probably based on the images in the cella of the Temple of Mars Ultor. The figure on the left is Venus with Mars in the center and the divine Julius on the right. Note how the style of the drapery of the figure of Venus comes very close to that used on the figure of Aphrodite on the Parthenon. The dress and physical characteristics of the divine Julius is borrowed from Greek images of the gods, like the 2nd century BCE figure of Poseidon. The contrapposto pose and cuirass of the image of Mars clearly echoes the cuirass statue type like the Augustus of Primaporta. || <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> || <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> Statue of Mars from about 90 AD that is based on the cult statue of Mars in the Temple of Mars Ultor. || <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> This is a surviving fragment of the decoration of the second story of the portico that flanked the temple of Mars Ultor. The caryatid figures are direct quotations of the caryatids from the Porch of the Maidens of the Erechtheum on the Acropolis. The shield representing Jupiter is a possible reference to the shields Alexander the Great hung in the Parthenon after his victory at Granikos. || <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> Caryatid from the Porch of the Maidens. || <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> Maison Carrée, Nîmes, 19 B.C. || <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> Pont du Gard, late first century B.C. || <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> Boscoreale Cup 1: Augustus receiving the surrender of barbarians. Augustus's open hand signifies his clemency. || <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> Boscoreale Cup 1: Augustus as world ruler: Augustus sits on a curule chair, the symbol of Roman magistracy. He holds a globe in his hand and receives a Nike figure from Venus who is followed by the infant figure of Amor or Cupid, the goddess Roma, and the Genus Populi Romani. To his left appears Mars leading a group of personifications representing the seven provinces. || <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> Boscoreale Cup 2: Tiberius in Triumph. Kleiner, //A History of Roman Art ,// p. 105: "The Tiberius cup shows on one side the emperor-to-be riding in a triumphal quadriga holding a laurel branch and an eagle-tipped scepter. Behind him is a state slave who places a wreath on Tiberius's head. The slave's job was also to whisper an admonition in the victorious general's ear as he paraded though Rome in glory as a Jupiter-like figure: "Remember, you are only mortal." || <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> Boscoreale Cup 2: Sacrifice in front of the temple of the Capitoline Jupiter either marking the departure on a military campaign or culminating the triumphal procession. ||
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 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;">Augustan Architecture ||
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Texts: [|Quintilian, //Institutes of Oratory.//]
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">44 BCE, Ides of March || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Assasination of [|Julius Caesar] ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">42 BCE || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Defeat of the Assassins of Julius Caesar at the Battle of Philippi by the so-called "[|Second Triumvirate]": Octavian, Lepidus, and Mark Antony ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">42 BCE || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Julius Caesar granted the title of //divus// or divine. Octavian thus became //divi filius//, or son of a divine. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">31 BCE || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Octavian defeats Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the [|Battle of Actium]. This battle marks the end of the period from about 100 BCE that was marked by civil wars to gain control of Rome. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">27 BCE || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Octavian granted the title of //Augustus// by the Roman Senate. This can be understood to mark the beginning of the Empire. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">27 BCE || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Work begins on the Temple of Mars Ultor and the Forum of Augustus. Octavian had promised to dedicate a temple of Mars when he sought the war gods aid before the battle in 42 BCE to defeat the assassins of Julius Caesar. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">20 BCE || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Parthians surrender and return the standards that had been lost by the Roman general Crassus in a battle in 53 BCE ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">19 BCE || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Death of [|Virgil] who had been working on the //[|Aeneid]// probably commissioned by Augustus since about 29 BCE. See [|excerpt from the //Aeneid//]//.// ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">17 BCE || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Augustus reinstitutes the[| Secular Games]. See Horace's //Carmen Saeculare// above. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">13 BCE, July 4 || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Augustus inaugurates the construction of the //Ara Pacis.// Augustus and Agrippa return from the provinces and proclaim an era of peace (//Pax Romana// or //Pax Augusta//). ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">12 BCE || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Augustus assumes the title of //[|Pontifex maximus]// ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">9 BCE || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Augustus dedicates the //Ara Pacis// on Livia's birthday ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">9 BCE || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Augustus dedicates the //Ara Pacis// on Livia's birthday ||

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Through visual imagery a new mythology of Rome and, for the emperor, a new ritual of power were created. Built on relatively simple foundations, the myth perpetuated itself and transcended the realities of everyday life to project onto future generations the impression that they lived in the best of all possible worlds in the best of all times....At the same time as his "restoration of the Republic" and the creation of his new political style, Augustus, also set in motion a program to "heal" Roman society. The principal themes were renewal of religion and custom, //virtus//, and the honor of the Roman people. Never before had a new ruler implemented such a far-reaching cultural program, so effectively embodied in visual imagery; and it has seldom happened since (Paul Zanker, //The Power of Images and the Age of Augustus// (1990). || <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">Roman power was constructed and made manifest in its marble monuments. Emperors from the pagan Roman empire of Augustus to the Christian empire of Constantine and Theodosius were aware of the important role architectural and sculptural monuments played in establishing their power. A coherent language of art reflecting the different functions of the Emperor was developed to express this authority. This begins with Octavianus who would subsequently become Augustus Caesar, the first Roman Emperor. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">When Octavianus had defeated his rivals at the battle of Actium in 31 BCE to end the civil wars that had marked the last 100 years of the Roman Republic, he was very deliberate in articulating his power. He wanted to avoid the error of Julius Caesar who had taken dictatorial control of Rome and earned the great resentment of the Roman Senate which had been the traditional center of power. Octavianus carefully constructed himself as a renovator rather than innovator. He fostered Roman tradition. In 28/7 BCE he formally surrendered his supremacy and restored the government to the Senate and People. Augustus describes this in his //Res Gestae//: <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">To avoid the resentment of the Roman Senate, Octavianus now Augustus thus wanted to avoid institutionalized authoritarian power. He characterized himself as //Princeps// or "the First Citizen." From this comes the term //Principate// that identified the theory of power of the early Empire. Augustus also called himself //Pater Patriae, "//father of the country." Augustus maintained his authority by taking over traditional positions of authority. He became //imperator// or the general of the Roman army. This gave him control of the vast flung provinces that had fallen under Roman control. In Rome itself his authority was based on taking on one of the two consulships. In 12 BCE, Augustus took on the position of //Pontifex maximus// or the chief priest. By exploiting traditional positions of power Augustus was able to characterize himself as "the restorer of the //Res publica//," and perserver of traditional Roman customs. As //Pontifex maximus//, Augustus demonstrated his //pietas,// or respect and duty to traditional customs. Augustus also used his wealth and patronage to foster his authority and that of Rome. It was under Augustus that [|Vergil] wrote the great national and religious epic poem the //[|Aeneid]//, Horace composed his odes, and Livy wrote his history of Rome. In passages like [|Jupiter's famous prophecy to Venus in the first book of the //Aeneid//] the destiny of Rome to rule a vast empire are laid out. These themes are clearly echoed in the visual arts commissioned by Augustus. **<span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The //Augustus of Primaporta// ** <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;">
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Roman Power and Roman Imperial Sculpture **
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Power is very rarely limited to the pure exercise of brute force....Power is ...a far more complex and mysterious quality than any apparently simple manifestation of it would appear. It is as much a matter of impression, of theatre, of persuading those over whom authority is wielded to collude in their subjugation. Insofar as power is a matter of presentation, its cultural currency in antiquity (and still today) was the creation, manipulation, and display of images. In the propagation of the imperial office, at any rate, art was power (Jas Elsner, //Imperial Rome and Christian Triumph,// Oxford, 1998, p. 53).
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In my sixth and seventh consulships [28/7 BCE], after I had stamped out the civil wars and at a time when by universal consent I was in absolute control of everything. I transferred the //res publica// from my own charge ('//ex mea potestate'//) to the discretion of the Senate and the People of Rome. For this service I was given the name "Augustus" by a decree of the Senate. ||

<span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">In the first book of the //Aeneid//, Vergil compares Neptune calming a raging sea caused by the vengeful Juno to a statesman who commands the masses by his authority or //auctoritas//. This passage unmistakeably echoes Augustus's account of his accession to power from his //Res Gestae// quoted above. This passage presents a literary equivalent to the famous //Augustus of Primaporta//:
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Just as often happens when in a great nation turmoil breaks out and the base masses go on a rampage: firebrands and stones fly, and madness supplies the weapons: then, if they have caught sight of some man who carries weight because of his public devotion and service, they stand silent, their ears ready to listen. Then he prevails in speech over their fury by his authority, and placates them. Just so, the whole uproar of the sea died down, when the father of the seas looked upon the waters. The sky cleared, Neptune turned his horses around, and flying onward, gave free rein to his compliant chariot (I.148-156) ||

Cuirass Statue of Trajan, Louvre. ||||  Cuirass Statue of Marcus Aurelius, Louvre. || <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">The so-called //Augustus of Primaporta// was clearly made to provide visible testament to Augustus's claim to authority and the creation of a visual language of imperial images. Augustus holds in his left hand a spear which was a symbol of ability in arms and power (//imperii//). The spear, which will morph into the scepter of the medieval king, was a regular symbol of imperial power. Augustus is shown wearing the cuirass, or breastplate of a military general. This manifests Augustus's role as //imperator,// or head of Rome's military forces//.// The formula of the cuirass statue would be one of the most prevalent in the Roman tradition. For example see Harvard's Arthur M. Sackler Museum statue of the [|Emperor Trajan]. A coin from the reign of Valens in the middle of the fourth century exemplifies the continuity of this formula. Along with the cuirass, a common characteristic of this portrait type is the contrapposto pose with the weight clearly shifted to one leg. Scholars have seen a special reference in this pose in the statue of Augustus. They have seen strong parallels to the statue entitled the //Doryphoros// by the Greek mid fifth-century BCE artist Polykleitos. This statue was one of the most famous and most copied statues of Antiquity. A copy in Naples gives us some sense of the lost original. [|Literary references] to this statue make it clear that Polykleitos intended this statue to be a visual demonstration of his canon of ideal man. The similarities between the two statues extend beyond the poses to the handling of facial details. Both emphasize the clear delineation of the brow and nose. Similar conventions are used in the handling of the hair of both. It was undoubtedly intentional on the part of the Augustan artists to base their statue on the Greek work. The rich drapery with its multiple-folds and elegant edge can be related to Greek Classical drapery style like that appearing on the Parthenon. Both the //Doryphoros// and the //Augustus of Primaporta// share the same calm, self-controiled expression. Using the Greek distinction, both represent the //ethos//, or character, of the figures rather than their //pathos//, or immediate emotional response. The conception of the ideal man of the Greek Classical period was an important model for Augustus, the ideal man of his age, but there is the significant difference that the Augustus statue is unmistakably a portrait of Augustus while the //Doryphoros// like the other major Greek works is a representation of the archetypal concept of the male figure and clearly not a representation of a particular individual. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">Beyond the standardization of type, a striking feature of the Augustus statue and imperial portraiture in general is the standardization in the representation of the individual emperors. While the portraits of Augustus are easily identifiable by the facial features, the artists were clearly not interested in representing Augustus at different stages of his life. Portraits of Augustus are not 'realistic' at all and bear little resemblance to the description of him given by Suetonius (//Augustus// 79-82). There are no portraits of a sixty year old Augustus. Like the //Augustus of Primaporta//, the portraits show Augustus at the prime of his life. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">Another significant difference between the Polykleitos statue and the //Augustus of Primaporta// is how the //Doryphoros// is self-contained in its balanced pose while the right arm of the //Augustus of Primaporta// extends out in space. This is one of the most popular and easily identifiable gestures in Roman art, the //ad locutio// gesture or the gesture of speech. In Roman public life, the orator played a central role. The ability to convince an audience through an effective oration was critical to the success of a politician. For a military leader, the ability to rally and motivate the army was a hallmark of a great general. The //ad locutio// gesture conveys of the voice and authority of the figure. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">The importance of the orator in Roman public life explains the central role of rhetoric in Roman education. A good rhetorician would learn to adapt his style to the appropriate context. A good rhetorician would know to use a simpler, plainer style for certain audiences while using a higher, more eloquent style in more formal and sophisticated contexts. He also would know how to quote respected authorities to lend support to an argument. There is thus an important parallel between rhetoric and the design of Augustan statuary. It was clearly intentional to adapt the Classical Greek style and specific reference to the famed statue by Polykleitos in creating the //Augustus of Primaporta//. What scholars call Augustan classicism relates the period of Augustus to the great period of Greek culture of the fifth century BCE, the so-called age of Pericles and the period of the [|Parthenon]. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">Individual details of the statue serve to reinforce the claims and ambitions of Augustus. Attached to the right foot of Augustus and serving as a support for the statue is a representation of a cupid riding on the back of a dolphin. As stated in the[| prophesy from the //Aeneid//] cited above, Augustus traced his ancestry back to Aeneas and the foundation of the Roman tradition. Aeneas was understood to have been the off-spring of the goddess Venus like the Cupid who rides the back of the dolphin. This geneaology was central to his claim to be //princeps// and //pater patriae//. Patriarchal family structure was the bedrock of Roman society. The Roman elite of the Senatorial class owed their status not to their personal accomplishments but to the authority of their family. By basing his claim to authority on his geneaology which links him to the first family of Rome, Augustus was appealing to traditional Roman values. He again constructed himself as a conserver and rennovator and definitely not as an innovator.
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<span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">The decoration of the cuirass places a specific event in the context of a Roman vision of the world. At the center of the relief, there is a barbarian figure clearly identifiable by pants and beard handing a Roman military standard to a man dressed on a Roman cuirass. While there is no certainty as to the identification of the Roman in the scene, the barbarian is identifiable as a Parthian, perhaps their king Phraates IV, who returned the Roman standards in 20 BCE that the Parthians had captured in 53 BCE after the defeat of Crassus. Significantly this victory was a diplomatic and not a military one, and was heralded as an important step in establishing the era of Augustan peace. Other figures on this cuirass bring out the universal implications of this event. At the top appears a bearded figure holding a veil over his head. This is //Caelus//, or the Sky god, with the mantle of the heavens. Beneath this figure appears a figure driving a four-horse chariot. This is the sun-god //Sol//. The chariot is preceded and appears to chase a figure identified as //Aurora.// Flanking the central group are again two female figures. The one on the left has been identified as //Hispania// (Spain) while the other has been suggested to be //Gallia.// Beneath these figures are the brother and sister pair of Apollo, with a lyre and riding a griffin, and Diana, riding a stag. At the very bottom of the cuirass appears the reclining female figure //Tellus// who holds a cornucopia and is accompanied by two babies. This imagery gives Roman rule divine sanction to rule everything under the heavens from Spain to Gaul and everything over the Earth. It is important to acknowledge the gender politics of this cuirass with the male //Sol// driving out female //Aurora//. The provinces and earth are personfied as female with the active male figures at the center of the composition. The imagery of the cuirass clearly relates to one of the [|odes of Horace]. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;">

<span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">While the //Augustus of Primaporta// gives visual form to the role of Augustus as //imperator//, or the leader of Roman military forces, other statues represent the other functions of Augustus. The statue above with its elaborate toga, the traditional Roman dress, and mantle drawn over the head (//capite velato//) identifies this statue as Augustus in the role of //Pontifex maximus.// The right arm which has been lost beneath the elbow originally held a //patera// or a sacrificial cup. A statue like this reminds us of the important role the practice of Roman religion played in the social and political life of Rome. In participating in the civic cults one signified their membership in Roman society. A central virtue in Roman society was //pietas.// It is important to distinguish this from the Christian ideas of piety. The Roman notion of //Pietas// focused on the maintenance and veneration of traditional Roman customs. By emphasizing his //pietas//, Augustus was again asserting his claim to be a conserver of traditional Roman values. It was not by chance that Vergil in his //Aeneid// repeatedly identifies the hero as "pious Aeneas." Again this makes the connection between Augustus and his legendary ancestor. **<span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The //Ara Pacis// **


 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">On my return from Spain and Gaul in the consulship of Tiberius Nero and Publius Quintilius [13 B.C.E.] after successfully arranging affairs in those provinces, the senate resolved that an altar of the Augustan Peace should be consecrated next to the Campus Martius in honor of my return, and ordered that the magistrates and priests and Vestal Virgins should perform an annual sacrifice there....By new laws passed on my proposal I brought back into use many exemplary practices of our ancestors which were disappearing in our time, and in many ways I myself transmitted exemplary practices to posterity for their imitation (//Acts of the Divine Augustus// (2.2; 8.5). ||

<span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">The most famous example of Augustan art that has come down to us is the //Ara Pacis,// or the Altar of Peace. Founded on July 4, 13 BCE and completed on January 30, 9 BCE, was designed as a permanent monument to the most important accomplishment of Augustus --the bringing of an era of peace. This was particularly important to the Romans who had witnessed the instability of the Civil Wars that marked the end of the Republican period. Augustan peace extended throughout the Roman / civilized world. The theme of peace is intertwined on the altar with themes of the dynastic claims of the family of Augustus, his social policy, and the importance of religion as a civilizing force. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">The form of the altar is a large precinct wall that encloses the altar itself. Doors in the middle of the east and west sides provide access to the altar. Attempts to identify the source for the form of the altar have suggested close parallels to the fifth century BCE Altar of the Twelve Gods in the Agora in Athens. This is one of the many links connecting this Roman work to Greek and especially Athenian mid-fifth century monuments. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">Rectangular figurative panels flank the doorways at either end of the exterior wall. The scenes on either side of the west end show the legendary founders of Rome. The left hand panel is poorly preserved. It represents Mars and the twin Romulus and Remus. Mars as the war god articulates the role war plays in the establishing of peace. Mars was understood to be the father of Romulus, the founder of Rome. As stated in the prophesy from the [|Aeneid], Romulus was understood to be an ancestor of Augustus.

<span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">The relief on the southwestern side represents another important ancestor of Augustus with the image of //Aeneas Sacrificing.// He is shown making an offering to the //penates,// or the household gods. Aeneas is accompanied by his son Julus-Ascanius. The implications of this panel for Augustus are very clear. Augustus would have wanted to be linked to his legendary ancestor Aeneas, the //pater// (father) of the Julian family and the Roman tradition. Aeneas' //pietas// testifies to his respect for his family traditions just as the altar testifies to the //pietas// of Augustus. The filial piety of Aeneas was a well-known subject in Roman art as demonstrated by its appearance in frescos, tombstones, and even lamps. The illustrated tombstone exemplifies this subject. Aeneas is shown as the "sandwich generation" supporting his father, Anchises, by his left arm and holding his son's hand by his right hand. The group illustrates Aeneas rescuing his father and son from burning Troy. The tombstone relief shows Aeneas wearing a cuirass like Augustus wears in the //Augustus of Primaporta.// Anchises is shown holding a box containing the //penates// or the family gods. It is to these //penates// that Aeneas is shown offering the sacrifice of the sow in the //Ara Pacis// relief. The sow is a reference to a prophesy in Virgil's //Aeneid// that the hero would find a sow under an oak tree when he arrived in Latium. The two panels on the west side of the altar, seen together, allude to two dominant functions of Augustus: as //imperator// (leader of army=Mars) and //pontifex maximus// (chief priest=Aeneas).

<span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">The reliefs on the east end of the building are allegorical figures. On the southeast side is the so-called //Tellus// panel. This is the personification of Earth. The figure is sometimes identified as //Italia//, or Italy. The two children in her lap along with the animals and plants allude to the bounty of earth, especially in an era of peace. She is flanked by female figures with billowing mantles that can be identified as sea and land breezes. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">The panel on the northeast side is very fragmentary. Its subject was the seated figure of //Roma// with arms at her feet and accompanied by two figures who have been identified as the personifications of //Honos// (Honor) and //Virtus// (Virtue). It is significant to note the links between the two north panels on the east and west ends as focusing on military and war while the southern panels reflect more peaceful pursuits. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">The four panels connect to four major themes of Augustan ideology: //Piety and respect for traditional custom// (Aeneas sacrificing); //War// ( Mars with Romulus and Remus); //Victory// (Roma with //Honos// and //Virtus); Fruits of Peace// (Tellus panel with the fertility of the land and sea). <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">The most famous reliefs included on the altar are the two processional reliefs that appear in the upper register of the north and south sides of the altar. The south frieze shows Augustus, attendants, and members of the family of Augustus. Although the lower part of the figure is poorly preserved, enough of the head is intact to enable an identification of the figure of Augustus. He is shown in the toga with mantle over the head associated with a priest in a sacrifice. His outstretched right arm suggests that he might have been holding a //patera//. The figure echoes the representation of Augustus as //Pontifex Maximus// and the figure of Aeneas sacrificing from the west end. In about the center of the south frieze appears the son-in-law of Augustus, Marcus Agrippa, the likely successor of Augustus. The inclusion of Agrippa in the frieze has enabled scholars to date the events shown. Since Agrippa died in 12 BCE, this must be the foundation ceremony that took place on July 4, 13 BCE. The figures on the north frieze have been identified as prominent members of the Senate and families. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">Scholars have long noted the parallels between the processional scenes from the //Ara Pacis// and the Ionic frieze from the [|Parthenon] showing the [|Panathenaic Procession]. The use of a continuous frieze showing a religious procession as well as the strong classicism of the Ara Pacis relief indicate some of the similarities between the two. But significant difference exists as well. Most notably is the approach to the subject matter. In the case of the Panathenaic frieze no individual procession can be identified. None of the mortals represented can be connected to known historical figures. While the Ara Pacis frieze, with its identifiable portraits can be identified as the foundation procession of July 4, 13 BCE. There is thus the contrast between the archetypal approach of Greek and what can be identified as the factual approach of the Roman work. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">A striking difference between the two can be seen in the choice of types of figures included. In the Parthenon frieze, except for the group of maidens shown in a section of eastern frieze, there are no other mortal women included in the Parthenon frieze. Likewise there are no children included in the earlier frieze. In contrast, the Ara Pacis friezes intermingle male and female as well as children and adults. This intermingling of figures suggests the theme of family. The emphasis on family in the Ara Pacis relief echoes the important role families played in the social and political life of Rome. Ones identity was determined in significant ways by the identity of your family. The inclusion of members of the imperial family in particular can be related to Augustus's dynastic claim for his family. The family of Augustus which was understood to descend from the founders of the Roman tradition Aeneas and Romulus could claim the rightful position as the first family of Rome and rulers of Rome. The selection also can be seen to reflect Augustan social policy. Laws enacted by Augustus reflect a relaxing of restrictions on marriage and provided incentives for procreation. **<span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Other Images of Augustus ** //<span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Gemma Augustea //<span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">, c. 10 A.D. In the upper register, Augustus along with Roma are enthroned. Augustus holds in his left hand the staff signifying his imperial power while in his right hand he holds the //lituus//, the curved scepter of an Augur (soothsayer). The semi-nudity of Augustus with the eagle beneath him indicates that Augustus is being presented in the guise of Jupiter. Capricorn, Augustus's zodiacal sign, appears between Augustus and Roma. To the left appears a youth probably identifiable as Germanicus and on the far left Tiberius steps down from a chariot driven by //Victoria// (Nike). On the far right appear Neptune and probably Italia or Tellus who holds a cornucopia. Behind them appears the figure of //Oecumene//, the personification of universal empire, who crowns Augustus with a crown of oak leaves (//corona civica//). In the lower register appear Roman soldiers raising a trophy to mark a victory over the barbarians. ||  || <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> Boscoreale Cup 1: Augustus receiving the surrender of barbarians. Augustus's open hand signifies his clemency. (Compare the iconography of these cups to that of the [|panels of Marcus Aurelius]. Also notice how this image has unmistakeable similarities to later images of the Adoration of the Magi in Christian art.) || <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> Boscoreale Cup 1: Augustus as world ruler: Augustus sits on a curule chair, the symbol of Roman magistracy. He holds a globe in his hand and receives a Nike figure from Venus who is followed by the infant figure of Amor or Cupid, the goddess Roma, and the Genus Populi Romani. To his left appears Mars leading a group of personifications representing the seven provinces. || <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> Boscoreale Cup 2: Tiberius in Triumph. || <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"> Boscoreale Cup 2: Sacrifice in front of the temple of the Capitoline Jupiter celebrated at the departure of Tiberius. ||
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